AFFORDABLE SODIUM-ION BATTERY CHEMISTRY FOR SUSTAINABLE ELECTRIC VEHICLES: MATERIALS, PERFORMANCE, COST ANALYSIS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) are critical to reducing global greenhouse gas emissions and advancing sustainable transportation. However, the high cost and limited availability of lithium resources present significant economic and supply challenges for mass EV adoption. The rapid expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) has intensified the demand for cost-effective, sustainable, and high-performance energy storage technologies. Although lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) currently dominate the EV market because of their high energy density and mature manufacturing infrastructure, concerns regarding the limited availability of lithium resources, rising raw material costs, geopolitical supply risks, and environmental impacts associated with lithium and cobalt mining have accelerated the search for alternative battery chemistries. Among the emerging technologies, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have attracted considerable attention owing to the natural abundance, low cost, and widespread availability of sodium resources, together with their improved thermal stability and reduced environmental footprint. This review critically evaluates recent developments in sodium-ion battery chemistry for electric vehicle applications by analyzing advances in electrode materials, electrolyte formulations, electrochemical performance, manufacturing feasibility, economic viability, and sustainability. A comprehensive comparative assessment between sodium-ion and lithium-ion battery systems is presented using published experimental data on energy density, cycle life, thermal stability, charging characteristics, production cost, and environmental impact. The analysis demonstrates that while current sodium-ion batteries exhibit lower gravimetric energy density than lithium-ion batteries, they provide significant advantages in material affordability, supply-chain security, operational safety, wide-temperature performance, and reduced dependence on critical minerals. The findings indicate that continuous progress in hard-carbon anodes, Prussian blue analogue cathodes, layered oxide materials, and advanced electrolyte systems is steadily improving the electrochemical performance and commercial prospects of sodium-ion batteries. Furthermore, economic and life-cycle assessments suggest that sodium-ion technology offers a promising pathway toward affordable and sustainable electrification, particularly for entry-level passenger vehicles, public transportation, and stationary energy storage. The study concludes that sustained innovation in materials engineering, cell design, and large-scale manufacturing will play a pivotal role in accelerating the commercial adoption of sodium-ion batteries as a practical and environmentally responsible alternative for next-generation electric mobility.